The creedal conflict among the Muslim sects revolves mainly around the following Qur’anic verses that have allegorical indecisive meanings:

“Are they only waiting for Allah as well as the angels to come down to them under canopies of clouds…” [The Qur’an (2:210)].
“To some of them (i.e. the prophets) Allah spoke” [The Qur’an (2:253)].
“And if any of the polytheists seeks your protection, grant him your protection may he listen to the words of Allah (i.e. the Qur’an), then let him reach his sanctuary.” [The Qur’an (9:6)].
“The Most Gracious rose above the Throne.” [The Qur’an (20:5)].
“And I endued you (O Moses) with love from Me, that you may be brought up under My Eyes.” [The Qur’an (20:39)]
“Everything shall perish save His Face” [The Qur’an (28:88)].
“He (Allah) said, “O satan what prevented you from prostrating (in honoring) to what I have created with both My Hands?” [The Qur’an (38:75)].
“Some faces will be radiant on that Day, looking towards their Lord.” [The Qur’an (75:22-23)]

The wording of the above verses implies the following meanings apparently:

• That Allah has a body, a face and two hands.
• He speaks directly to whom He chooses and the Qur’an is His direct spoken words.
• Those who are righteous in this life shall be able to see their Creator on the day of resurrection.

In dealing with the previous verses, scholars were divided into 2 main groups:

1. Traditionists (Al-Muhad-detheen): This group limited their thinking to the Qur’an, and the recorded sayings of Prophet Muhammad P.B.U.H. They saw that creedal knowledge is confined to what Allah has sent to us in His message, and what He ordered His messenger to explain. They promoted the idea that those who have sincere faith don’t need any further investigation into other evidences. They considered this a big risk and an innovation. Today, they are usually referred to by the term “Salafists.” They took as evidence on their opinions the Qur’anic verse which says: “It is He who has sent down the Book to you. Some of its verses are clear and decisive in meaning—they are the foundation of the Book—while others are allegorical and indecisive. Those with deviation in their hearts pursue the indecisive verses, so as to create dissension by seeking to interpret them: but no one knows their meaning except Allah. Those who are firmly grounded in knowledge say, ‘We believe in it: it is all from our Lord.’ But only the wise take heed.” [The Qur’an (3:7)].

2. Scholastics (Al-Mutakal-lemeen): They pondered deeply over the attributes of Allah by contemplating on His creation. They looked attentively at the universal evidences proving His existence, and followed their reason in getting to know their Creator. They tried to do this within the guiding frame of the Qur’an and the Sunnah. They are divided mainly into 3 sects: Mu‘tazilies, Ash‘aries and Matureedies. Scholastics had a different understanding for the previously mentioned verse (3:7), they said that they don’t try to interpret the indecisive verses, but they only turn the text away from the inappropriate apparent meaning to a logically accepted one; this was to protect people and laymen from creating wrong creedal thoughts about Allah. They took the decisive verses and the Arabic language as their guide, and then they chose the meanings deemed most appropriate for the rank of Allah Almighty. The main reason for refusing the apparent meanings of the indecisive verses was that they contradict the logical evidences which reason can accept from contemplating on the creation.

When speaking about the approach of scholastics in his book “Explaining the Monotheistic creeds” (Tawdeeh Al-‘Aqa’ed Fe ‘Elm Al-Tawheed), Sheikh Abd-Ur-Rahman Al-Jezery (1299-1360 A.H.) said, “Based on the Islamic principal: ‘Whatever is necessary for accomplishing an obligation is also obligatory,’ contemplating on the universal evidences and pondering over them in our endeavor seeking to strengthen our knowledge of our Creator should not be considered an innovation, specially that the Qur’an instigates us to ponder over the creation and seek evidences on our thoughts and beliefs.”

Please note that the main purpose of this section is to incite objective thinking towards the ideas of all sects, not to promote the ideas of any of them. Personally, I don’t consider any of them to be a straying sect casted away from the main stream Muslims, though personally I refuse some of the ideas stated by each sect. When you read in their books you will instantly understand that their sole target was the glorification and exaltation of Allah, so how come that those who do this could be accused of infidelity? Let’s indulge deeper into their views so that we may grasp more knowledge about their views.

The early Muslim generations never indulged into ideas like how the creator exists, how come that He is not limited by space or time, etc. When some of the companions thought about these ideas, and spoke to the prophet about them, it is recorded that he said, “Don’t think about Allah’s nature but ponder over His creation.” Although this tradition is categorized as weak, similar responds were recorded to have been given by companions like Ibn-’Abbās, ‘Ali and Abu-Hurayrah. The early generations exalted Allah beyond all imagination. They understood that any trial to imagine His existence is a degradation of His supreme status. They never thought of Allah as an old man sitting on a huge throne above the heavens. They never tried to embody Allah, or compare Him to whatever they see in the world, nothing of that sort. They believed in His supremacy and that there is nothing they know that could be compared to Him.

The first 4 generations treated any verse whose wording implies any embodiment for Allah as an indecisive verse. They never tried to interpret such verses or indulge into their meanings. Imam Rabi‘ah Ibn Far-roukh (Died 136 A.H.) –the teacher of Imam Mālek– was once asked by a student attending his lesson: “How did Allah rise above the throne?” The student was referring to the fact that if Allah moves and equilibrates or sits above a throne, then He has a body, and if He has a body that could be confined in a certain space as the throne, then His existence needs space and consequently He Himself was preceded by space; therefore, He is not the Creator. Imam Rabi‘ah immediately responded saying, “Rising (as a deed) isn’t unknown (to ask about). Its manner (for Allah’s rank) is unimaginable. The belief in its occurrence is an obligation, and to ask about its manner is an innovation.”

It was also reported that later on, a man asked Imam Mālek the same question, so he gave the same answer and then expelled the questioner from his lesson. It seems that the Imam feared that his students might be affected by the questioner or imitate his manner in comparing Allah to the creatures, and indulge into the meanings of the indecisive verses. Whenever asked about any of the indecisive verses, the early generations used to say: “Recite them like they have been revealed without indulging into the means of their occurrence.”

Imam Abu-Hanifah expressed his opinion regarding these verses in his famous book “The Grand Jurisprudence” (Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar) saying, “There is nothing like Allah, He is All-Hearing, All-Seeing. All of His attributes are ageless uncreated unlike the attributes of creatures. His knowledge is not like that of ours, His power is not like that of ours and so are His sight, hearing and speech. We speak through vocals and letters that are created while Allah speaks without the need for them both and His speech is uncreated. He is not a body, nor is He limited by space or countered by a rival or any peer, there is nothing comparable unto him. He has a face, hands and essence and they are all attributes whose characteristics and state are unknown. No one should say that His hand is a reference to His power or blessings, as this would be a denial of the attribute, which is what the Mu‘tazilies say. His hand is an attribute whose state is unknown.”

Regarding this issue, Imam Ahmad Ibn-Hanbal said, “Allah could only be qualified with the attributes He named for Himself, or those taught by His messenger. Nothing should be said beyond the Qur’an or the Sunnah.” And regarding the indecisive verses, he said, “Indecisive verses are like closed safes, their solution is to recite them like they have been revealed.”

The approach of the early generations was extremely cautious. They did not try to indulge into matters that our human minds can neither imagine nor confirm. Whenever they were faced with questions regarding the meaning of any indecisive verse they stated that the meaning or mode of occurrence of these verses is something beyond our imagination. They didn’t try to interpret any of these verses. This is the most appropriate manner of dealing with such verses. It resembles the approach described by Allah Himself in verse (3:7) mentioned earlier.

Salafists say that they follow the early generations in their methodology of monotheism. They say: “We adopt a doctrine gathering between exaltation (Al-Tanzeeh) and affirmation (Al-Ethbat),” meaning that they exalt the Creator above any resemblance to the creatures, and they affirm all of the attributes He referred to Himself with in His message, and through the teachings of His prophet, without any indulgence into the manner of their occurrence. Ibn-Taymeyah (661-728 A.H.) was the founder of the Salafists’ creedal school of thought. He was a Hanbali scholar, his views were built upon Imam Ahmad’s opinions. This is why some scholars refer to them by the word “Hanbalies.” In his book “The Intermediate Creed” (Al-‘Aqeedah Al-Wasetiyah), Ibn-Taymeyah said, “We affirm all of Allah’s attributes without any alteration, negation, attributing a state of being or likeness to any of His creation. There is nothing comparable unto Him, He is the All-Hearing, All-Seeing.”

“Alteration” (Tahreef): is to leave out the direct meaning understood from a verse or a tradition, and accept another meaning which the words do not imply, or do imply but in an indirect doubtful manner; that’s unless there is another evidence from the Qur’an, the Sunnah, or the Arabic language to justify this understanding; only then could this understanding be an acceptable possibility.
E.g., interpreting the verse and tradition which speak about Allah’s descent to this world to be referring to His commandments and judgment.

“Negation” (Ta‘teel): is to deny any of Allah’s attributes mentioned in the Qur’an, or mentioned by the prophet P.B.U.H. Negation is considered part of alteration, wherever there is alteration, there is negation but not the contrary.
E.g., interpreting the verses which mention Allah’s hands to be referring to His Power. 

“Attributing a state of being” (Takyeef): is to define a certain state or manner for the attributes of Allah.
E.g., interpreting the verse speaking about Allah’s ascension above the throne to be referring to a throne like that of kings and that Allah is a body sitting on it. 

“Attributing a state of Likeness” (Tamtheel): is to compare the attributes of Allah to the attributes of His creatures.
E.g., interpreting the verse speaking about Allah’s hands to be referring to hands like those of humans. 

Salafists accept the apparent meanings of the indecisive verses without any trial to interpret them, or think of any manner for their occurrence. They confirm that Allah has a face, hands and legs, He equilibrates above His throne, He moves, laughs, loves, gets angry and becomes content, speaks and enjoys all of the attributes He referred to Himself with in the Qur’an or through the Prophetic teachings, but His attributes are not like anything we know, nor could they be compared to the creation in any manner.

Scholastics agreed with the Salafists in the main ideas. They also said that attributing a manner or mode for Allah’s actions is wrong and against the decisive verses of the Qur’an which state that there is nothing like Allah nor is there anyone comparable unto Him. They agreed with Salafists in prohibiting attributing a state of being or likeness to any of the creatures when reciting the verses that mention Allah’s attributes. But when it comes to alteration and negation, they had a different opinion; their views were built upon the following contemplation:

All creatures are constructed or formed of parts, these parts need one another in a certain fashion. For example our human body is formed of hands, legs, head, abdomen and torso. We need our hands in order to eat, drink, hold all sorts of things, and move properly. We need our legs to walk and run. We need heads which contain our brains, eyes, noses, ears and mouths; in short, it contains most of the senses and the main engine behind our functioning. Our abdomen and torso contain the rest of our internal organs like the heart, which is the main battery of our lives, our lungs and respiratory system, our kidneys and internal purification system, etc. If any of these parts suffered any malfunction, the rest of our body falls ill, and doesn’t function properly. Likewise, all creatures are formed of many parts that need one another. The earth needs the sun and the moon to exist. The location of our solar system amidst the surrounding galaxy protects it from the vast supernova explosions in the rest of the locations, etc. All of these complications make it clear that life was designed, and everything related to it from the air we breathe to the location of our solar system within our galaxy was selected very carefully. Every part, member, or organ has a certain specified duty that keeps life running. Therefore, anything formed of parts that complete one another is designed and created.

From this contemplation, scholastics deduced that Allah cannot be like us, formed of parts that need one another. They said that Allah is the one who has created space and time, so He cannot be confined in a certain place or be affected by time. They said that Allah cannot have a body, for bodies need space to exist, and Allah is not preceded by anything, He described Himself to be All-Encompassing. When they encountered the indecisive verses whose apparent meanings negate the decisive evidences, their methodology of monotheism was to turn the meaning away (Sarf Al-Ma‘na) from the inappropriate apparent one to an acceptable appropriate one that befits the rank of Allah, and coincides with the decisive verses. They built this approach upon the Arabic language and the decisive verses of the Qur’an. According to their view this kind of necessary interpretation is different from the interpretation prohibited in verse (3:7) mentioned earlier. Its necessity emerges from the fact that if it was not done, those who are not grounded in knowledge shall either go astray in their understanding of the Islamic creed, or think that the Qur’an contradicts itself.

Example: when they encountered the verse which says: “Nay, indeed! When the earth is crushed and ground to dust, when your Lord comes down with the angels standing rank upon rank.” [The Qur’an (89:21-22)]. The apparent meaning is that Allah shall come down to earth after its destruction on the judgment day, and that the angels shall be standing in ranks honoring His approach. This could only be possible if Allah was a body that could be confined inside a certain place, and so He moves from one place to another, which is impossible and contradicts the decisive verses of the Qur’an that state clearly the following:

“It was He who created the heavens and earth in six Days [i.e. periods] and then ascended the throne. He knows what enters the earth and what comes out of it, what descends from the sky and what ascends to it. He is with you wherever you are, He sees all that you do.” [The Qur’an (57:4)].

“Allah is the one who has created the seven (layers of) heavens and of the earth, the like of them. His commandments descend among them, so that you may know that Allah has power over all things, and that He encompasses all things with His knowledge.” [The Qur’an (65:12)].

Based on the previous verses, scholastics stated that the meaning of verses (89:21-22) should be understood in the sense that Allah’s commandments and judgment are the ones that shall come down. They said that this is not alteration as the Salafists claim, but it’s explaining the indecisive verses in a manner that doesn’t negate the decisive verses of the Qur’an by turning the apparent illogical meaning to an acceptable logical one. Salafists refused this approach, and said that Allah shall actually come in a manner befitting His existence and rank, and they gave heed to the verse which says: “Unquestionably, they are in doubt about the meeting with their Lord. Unquestionably, He is of all things encompassing.” [The Qur’an (41:54)].

It was reported that Imam Mālek adopted this approach when he was asked about Allah’s descent to the heavens, he said, “His commandments are the ones that descend, not Him. He is eternal, He doesn’t need to move.” (Seyar A‘lām Al-Nubalā’). But many scholars denied this narration and said that it was a forgery made by Mālek’s scribe Habeeb Ibn Abi-Habeeb. It was also reported that when Imam Mālek was asked by his student Ibn Al-Qāsem (132-191 A.H.) about the traditions stating that Allah has created Adam having the same appearance as His, and that Allah shall reveal his leg on the judgment day and put it into the hell fire so that it may calm down, and that He shall put His hand into the hellfire and bring out whom He likes, Imam Mālek denied this vigorously and forbade his students from propagating such traditions (Seyar A‘lām Al-Nubalā’).

Evidence for necessary interpretation (Sarf Al-Ma‘na):

Scholastics took as evidence for necessary interpretation the following:

1. It is recorded in the Holy traditions that Allah shall address one of His servants on the judgment day saying, “I fell sick and you never came to visit me.” Feeling astonished, the servant would say: “O Lord! How can You fall sick?” Allah shall respond: “My servant so and so fell sick and you did not visit him. Verily, if you had visited him, you would have found me by his side.”

Besides teaching us that visiting those who are sick is an Islamic obligation, in this tradition Allah teaches us something very important: whenever He describes Himself with something that is not befitting for His rank or status, automatically this means that it has a different interpretation from the apparent meaning, and we should seek to turn the apparent meaning to an appropriate one. Another important point which we can learn from this tradition is that no matter how difficult and critical the situation is, believers remain steadfast for their beliefs. This servant whom Allah shall address on the judgment day is going to be questioned alone about his deeds, after this, it’s either Paradise or Hell, but still when he heard a question that collides with his firm creed, he questioned its correctness even though it was directed by Allah Himself.

2. It is recorded that after the battle of confederates (Al-Ahzab), Prophet Muhammad P.B.U.H. ordered his companions to head towards the traitorous tribe of Banu-Quraizah saying, “Whomsoever hears my words, let him not pray the after-noon (Al-Asr) prayers except at Banu-Quraizah.” Though this was a decisive order with clear words, on their way to Banu-Quraizah, Al-Asr prayer was due; some of the companions interpreted the prophet’s words to mean “Hurry up as much as you can,” so they stopped and prayed. The other group took the words literally, and did not pray the obligatory prayer until they reached Banu-Quraizah. Later on, when they asked the prophet which action was correct, he considered both actions correct. Hence, he approved on the interpretation approach, and the literalism approach.

3. Allah says in the Qur’an: “And your Lord never forgets.” [The Qur’an (19:64)]. This is a decisive verse. Its meaning is understood by all Muslims and logically accepted without any difference about it. Verily Allah cannot be accused of any short comings like forgetfulness. But there is another verse which says: “Today We shall forget you like you forgot Our meeting on this day (i.e. the judgment day).” [The Qur’an (45:34)]. The literal wording of the second verse says that Allah shall forget like His creatures do, which is impossible for His rank. Therefore, we have to turn the apparent meaning to another one befitting for Allah. Scholastics said that the verse means: “Today We shall neglect your begging for mercy like you neglected our warnings regarding the judgment day.”

4. Allah says in the Qur’an: “The Most Gracious is high above the Throne.” [The Qur’an (20:5)] and He also says: “He is with you wherever you are, He sees all that you do.” [The Qur’an (57:4)]. If we were to take the second verse literally, the Qur’an would contradict itself which is impossible. Scholastics said that the meaning of the second verse is: “He is with you wherever you are with his knowledge, He sees what you do.” Their interpretation actually makes the rest of the verse more understandable and resolves the dilemma of the literal contradiction.

 From the previous few examples, it becomes clear that the forbidden interpretation meant in verse (3:7) is the one related to things which our human minds can neither perceive, nor imagine, like Allah’s essence, the time of the judgment day, the future, etc. Hence, scholastics turned Allah’s attributes mentioned in the indecisive verses towards the closest acceptable meaning found in the decisive ones. They said that:

• Allah’s hands are a reference to His Power and Omnipotence. The verse which says: “Verily those who give pledge to you (O Muhammad), they are giving pledge to Allah, Allah’s hand is above theirs.” [The Qur’an (48:10)] means: “Allah’s power is with them.” Likewise, verse (38:75) mentioned earlier means “Why didn’t you prostrate yourself in honoring to what I have created with my might and power?”
• The tradition stating that Allah has created Adam in His image is a reference to creating Adam capable of seeing, hearing, thinking, having intelligence, etc.
• Allah’s face is a metaphoric reference for His existence.
• Allah’s rising (Estwa’) above the throne (‘Arsh) has different linguistic meanings. The Arabic word (Estwa’) could mean: equilibrate, rise, become high, settle, capture, or seize control of. And the Arabic word (‘Arsh) could mean throne, building, or construction. With some trial and error, the most appropriate meaning which does not contradict the decisive verses will be: “Allah is high above the universe,” which is confirmed by the verses which say: “He is the Most-High, the Great.” [The Qur’an (34:23)] and the verse: “Are you more difficult to create or the heavens (i.e. surrounding universe) that He has constructed, He raised it high and organized its construction.” [The Qur’an (79:27-28)]. Scholars agree that Allah has created a magnificent throne above the universe which the angels circumambulate continuously praising and worshipping Him. So some scholastics said that the meaning was: “Allah is high above the throne that’s above the universe,” but this doesn’t mean that Allah has a physical body with which he sits on this throne, it was simply constructed as a manifestation of His magnificence.

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Written by: Ehab Shawky